Attack at Picketed Point!

 Life in early Marietta was difficult: few amenities, flooding, epidemics, primitive (if any) shelter, and Indian threats. Early on, there were three communities in the new town. Fort Harmar was built in 1786 with its soldiers and residents was located near where Harmar School is today. Campus Martius was a fortified mini-city about one acre in size located where Campus Martius Museum is today. Picketed Point was the community on the "point" where the Ohio and Muskingum Rivers converge. It included residences along with businesses serving traffic on the Ohio River.

Caption: early drawing of Picketed Point, from Wikipedia with credit to Marietta College Special Collections. CLICK TO ENLARGE.

     The "Picketed" name was a later addition in 1791 when blockhouses and a protective enclosure of wooden posts (“pickets”) of about 4 acres was built around the community. William Stacy and Sheriff Ebenezer Sproat oversaw construction. This was after the Indian massacre at Big Bottom, along the Muskingum about 25 miles from Marietta. The blockhouses are seen in the photo at the corners of the community. They offered protection in event of attack and were occupied by sentries standing watch.

     If any one of the three communities experienced an emergency, they fired a cannon. That would be answered by a cannon firing from the other two. Help would be mobilized. Area residents could seek shelter within the closest protective enclosure.

     One historical account recounts the following Indian attack episode at Picketed Point.

     "On a very rainy, dark night, the sentinel from the bastion of the Campus Martius saw by the help of a flash of lightning an Indian skulking about almost under him; the cannon was fired, answered at "the Point," but nothing further was seen, but plenty of their tracks in the morning. Some short time after, Capt. Joseph Rogers from Pennsylvania. and one of the men with him, were killed and scalped on the hill in the Indian path leading from Mill Creek to the Campus Martius.

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               

   Such was life in early Marietta.

Life with Joseph at Fort Harmar

Joseph Buell, Marietta pioneer, future General of the Militia, businessman, and legislator, had a rough start at Fort Harmar: He was court-martialed. He sold liquor “without permission” when he traded a pint of liquor to buy some catfish. Fortuntately, he was acquitted. Joseph Buell was born in Killingsley CT in 1763. He arrived as a sergeant in the First American Regiment at Fort Harmar in May, 1786. His journal gives us a view of life at the fort. Quotes are from his journal unless noted otherwise.

Fort Harmar’s creation was a team effort: Congress authorized it, General Butler picked the location, Colonel Josiah Harmar (the fort was named for him) ordered its construction, Major John Doughty designed it, and soldiers built it. The Fort was built in 1785 on the west bank of the Muskingum River at the Ohio River. It had a pentagonal shape and occupied about 3/4 acre. Congress planned to sell land in eastern Ohio to new settlers and was having the land surveyed. The soldiers’ mission was to protect surveyors and settlers from Indian attacks and remove squatters living on land they didn’t own.

Initial plan for Fort Harmar, CA 1785, from University of Michigan, James McHenry Collection 

CLICK TO ENLARGE

Life at Fort Harmar was not easy. Soldiers endured primitive conditions, harsh discipline, boredom, illness, food shortages, and the constant threat of Indian attacks. Yet Joseph Buell seemed to enjoy his duty. He made friends and tolerated the hardships better than most. Likewise, Ebenezer Denny observed wistfully when he stopped at a mostly deserted Fort Harmar on April 14, 1790, “(It was) a place where I had spent….. the last two years with much satisfaction.”

Drunkenness was a constant problem. Soldiers received a daily ration of a gill (“Jill” - about 4 ounces) of liquor. Imagine that today. On a sunny May Day 1786 soldiers were given extra liquor and allowed to get “damned drunk.” On July 4th there was cannon fire and “we had liberty to drink and get drunk..” During a gloomy January stretch, they kept their spirits up by pouring spirits down, “we made ourselves pretty merry….” Buell’s St. Patrick’s Day entry is amusing: “The sons of St. Patrick kept….(the) usual custom - by getting drunk & fighting & breeding a riot etc.” Two weeks later Gregg “died in a fit of drunkenness…Soldiers have got the Devil in them - a drinking.” After that soldiers were forbidden to buy liquor from others. Joseph Buell enjoyed his spirits but exercised restraint not typical of the average soldier. When his fellow sergeants became drunk and disorderly on New Year’s Day 1787, Buell reported, “I did not think it proper to join this club (and stayed) at my own quarters.”

Painting of Fort Harmar based on early sketch by Joseph Gilman CA 1790. 

CLICK TO ENLARGE

There were six desertions during that first summer at Fort Harmar; more later on. Buell delayed reporting Corporal Weed’s desertion because he was “a very good fellow” -  a friend of Buell’s - who could have been shot if caught. Alford, Dustin, Fox were allowed to go fishing one sunny day. They didn’t return. A week later they sheepishly dragged themselves back and were given 100 lashes. 

Discipline was strict. Even petty offenses warranted confinement, whippings, or worse. “French received 25 lashes for insulting a Corporal.” “Houghmier was given 25 lashes for picking up an apron in the street.” “Brady was whipped 100 lashes for taking a coat out his serg’ts room.” Deserters could be shot on the spot without a trial. Major John Wyllys did just that, killing three deserters at Fort McIntosh. He was arrested at Fort Harmar for those killings but was exonerated and returned to the Fort. Shockley deserted and when apprehended was ordered to “run the gauntlet” 11 times. Running the gauntlet required the perpetrator to run or walk  through two rows of soldiers who struck the person with sticks, whips, or other weapons. It was a severe penalty, but at least he was still alive.

Disease took a toll. Engeham died in May; “the first due to sickness.” A month later Bamerd died.  When a death occurred all soldiers in the Fort marched with the coffin to the burial place led by an honor guard with fife and drums. Music was somber marching to the burial site, but returning they played a “jolly tune.” Question for further research: where was the burial ground for Fort Harmar?

Period drawing of Fort Harmar by Joseph Gilman CA 1790, courtesy Marietta College. 

CLICK TO ENLARGE

Accompanying surveyors was rough and dangerous duty. One company from the Fort returned from a surveying trip in November; “they had a tedious cold time of it. Some were without shoes and their feet badly frozen.”  

In June of 1789, seven soldiers accompanied John Mathews and James Backus on a surveying trip. Weather was hot; swarms of gnats and mosquitoes pestered them. Backus’s journal of the trip reported “bad hills,” storms, heavy rain, a balky compass - “plagued my soul out.” By July, Mathews’ group noticed signs of Indians. They saw moccasin tracks. Horses disappeared. Sentries were posted all through the nights. One morning well past sunrise, the group relaxed around a camp fire thinking the Indian threat had passed. They were not fully dressed. Suddenly shots rang out. Two of the soldiers and Mathews’ trusted assistant Patchen died instantly. 

A corporal, luckily sheltered from the gunfire by a tree, ran. He hid behind a log and watched while Indians explored the camp. He was surprised as their aggressive behavior changed to amusement when they discovered a compass. They laughed and gestured as the compass point moved. John Mathews escaped by outrunning the Indians. He was only partially dressed and wore no shoes. Soon his his feet and legs were painfully bloodied. Eventually the survivors reached the Ohio River and were rescued.

Troops were also charged with removing squatters living on land they didn’t own west and north of the Ohio River. Most left peacefully. In a few cases, soldiers allowed families to harvest their crops before evicting them. Levi Munsell reported a confrontation with squatters near present day Steubenville, Ohio, in 1787.  About 30 hunters were ordered to abandon their cabins. They refused. About 100 soldiers were sent to burn them out. The hunters lined up on the river bank with rifles, appearing to resist leaving. Soldiers confronted them and told them to retrieve valuables - quickly. They complied, and soon their cabins and crops were burned.

There were periods of recreation. Buell liked working in the gardens near the fort. He went to Marietta and viewed the “curiosities of the mountains,” probably referring to the earthworks (Indian mounds). In April of 1787, the weather was “warm and pleasant;” he was grateful to be out and active. A short time later, he and “all the sergeants” visited Isaac Williams who had recently moved his family to present-day Williamstown. The group enjoyed their company and “passed the day very happy.” May Day 1788 was celebrated “in the usual custom.” He added “We live pretty peaceable and happy” other than not receiving their pay on time.

Indians were a constant preoccupation - ranging from friendly curiosity to a deadly threat. Congress had sought peace with Indians, hoping to stem violence between Indians and whites in the Ohio Valley. A treaty was negotiated and signed at Fort Harmar in January, 1789. Despite elaborate efforts and good intentions, it accomplished little.  

Some Indians stayed near the Fort, trading with soldiers and entertaining with their ceremonial dancing. Joseph Buell and Fitch were amused themselves one evening watching the Indians “carry on.” Once the Indians gave a demonstration war dance inside the Fort stockade. 

One sultry August day, Captain Heart observed Indians across the Ohio River on the Virginia side. The crack of a musket echoed in the valley. He saw an Indian shoot a soldier hunting there and saw him fall down. A armed party from the Fort rushed over. They found one man target shooting and another napping on the ground. There were no Indians. 

One Indian episode was troubling for Joseph Buell. He sent one of his cooks to Kerr’s Island to get some milk. The man did not return. Buell fretted. A search party found only the man’s hat and some Indian clothing. They heard later that he had been killed and scalped. 

A friendly Indian named Captain Lunice warned in September, 1786, that Indians planned to attack the Fort Harmar. They immediately prepared for an attack by clearing brush and crops outside the fort to eliminate a potential hiding area. Soldiers were placed on full alert daily from daybreak to an hour past sunrise. There was no attack, but soldiers were on edge for months, contributing to low morale. Buell wrote: “We are out of provisions and expect the Indians every day to attack the Fort.” 

There were women at Fort Harmar. Apparently some were wives; others were employed as maids, cooks, or nurses. Buell refers to them on two occasions as “our virtuous women.” Some may not have been so virtuous. Twice Buell reports that wives had affairs with other soldiers. One of those wives…”got the Devil in her….(and) began to abuse her husband and break all her furniture” in a rage. She also “gave some insolence to Sarg’t Preatt who confined her in the guard house.” She was ordered to leave the Fort on the next boat. 

On another occasion, two soldiers came in and began to abuse “our virtuous women.” Buell removed them by force. In May 1788, a social gathering took place at Hamilton Kerr’s place on today’s Buckley’s Island. Buell and Munsell “stayed at home” because  “(it) did not seem fit to keep company with so many of our Virtuous camp women who (were there).” Why? Buell did not say.

On April 7, 1788, Buell reports: “Gen’l Putnam arrived here at this place with 50 men, who came to settle on the other side Muskingum (River) the most of them were artificiers (skilled craftsmen). They began with great spirit & there is great prospect of its being a flourishing place in a short time.” Joseph Buell himself joined that “flourishing place” (Marietta) in 1790 to operate a tavern with his friend and fellow soldier Levi Munsell. 

Soldiers at Fort Harmar helped stabilize conditions on the Ohio Valley frontier, paving the way for a settlement of Marietta and Ohio.

A New Territory Begins: July 1788

Walking through the woods on July day recently sparked a reminder of Marietta’s earliest days as a new settlement in 1788. Our two English Sheepdogs Sophie, Tess, and I ambled down a trail near our home. It was a sunny and mild Sunday in July - a welcome break from the typical heat and humidity.

Sunlight filtered through the trees. We stepped into a cathedral of total shade at the waterfall under a canopy of towering maple, oak, and sycamore trees. It was quiet. Only the gentle patter of the waterfall and the wheezy buzz of a seasonal cicada were audible. Later that same day, the dogs explored the edge of a bluff above the creek. Suddenly there was an explosion of flapping wings and squawking as a flock of turkeys launched themselves down the valley. 

The towering trees, turkeys, and the quiet reminded me of Marietta’s earliest period 230 years ago in July of 1788. The tall trees hid the sun needed to grow crops needed for food. Turkeys were a welcome source of food, but large flocks also damaged crops. It was quiet then: there were just a few dozen people around. Only sounds of nature, people talking, and hand tools would have been heard.

Yet it was a busy July of 1788 in the new settlement at Marietta. A year had passed since the passage of the landmark Ordinance of 1787 which created the first United States territory beyond the original thirteen states. Now it was time to bring that new territory to life.

Summary of Ordinance of 1787 from Reddit.com viewed at

https://www.reddit.com/r/Infographics/comments/3pgdiy/the_northwest_ordinance_of_1787

CLICK ON IMAGE TO ENLARGE

July 4 featured a community celebration with fireworks. On July 9, the Territorial Governor, Arthur St. Clair, arrived at Marietta. Major Ebenezer Denny’s journal records the event: “The arrival of the Governor of the Territory was announced by the discharge of thirteen rounds from a six pounder (cannon). The garrison (at Fort Harmar) turned out, and troops received him with presented arms.” 

The government of the new territory was officially installed on July 15. Governor St. Clair was conveyed from Fort Harmar to the “Bowery” (a long covered area erected near the Muskingum River) on the east side on a barge with “Congress” written on one of the oars. He was greeted by General Rufus Putnam and two of the three territorial judges, Samuel H. Parsons and James Mitchell Varnum. Putnam gave brief welcoming remarks. Secretary Winthrop Sargent read the commissions of the governor, judges, and secretary. St. Clair gave an address. 

Major General Arthur St. Clair, first Governor of "The Territory North and West of the Ohio River"

From Wikipedia

St Clair made several points that caught my attention:

• He praised the character of territorial leaders, mentioning their concern for religion, morality, love of liberty, willingness to sacrifice, respect for the rights of mankind. This went beyond mere rhetoric; it truly reflected the attitudes of the leaders.
• He observed that the legislative function of the new territorial government was only a temporary one: There was no elected legislature at this early stage. The Governor and Judges formed a legislative council to enact laws and could only enact laws adopted by other states. He gave assurance that acting in the best interests of the residents under this technically undemocratic system was "...a very important part of our duty, and will be attended to with the greatest care." He further pointed out that Congress could annul territorial laws which it believed were not lawful or suitable.
• Despite hardships in the new settlements, he encouraged patience and perseverance, along with a keeping a vision of a successful future.
• He devoted a significant part of his comments to the relationship with Indians: "Cultivate a good understanding with the natives...., treat them on all occasions with kindness, and the strictest regard for justice, run not into their customs and habits, prevent....reproach." Such conduct, he argued, would make them less hostile and more open to a peaceful existence.

Summary and Map of the Northwest Territory - from

https://historyplex.com/northwest-ordinance-of1787-purpose-summary-significance

The map shows states which eventually were formed from the territory lands

CLICK  ON IMAGE TO ENLARGE

General Putnam gave a brief response and "three cheers closed the ceremonies of the day." The citizens of Marietta issued a written response to St. Clair's speech. A committee including Ebenezer Sproat, John May, and Paul Fearing delivered that response to Governor St. Clair on July 17.

Governor St. Clair had been engaged in governing since his appointment in late 1787. His primary focus was arranging for a treaty negotiation with Indian tribes in the Ohio country. Congress had tasked him with this daunting assignment shortly after his appointment. On the very same day of his inauguration, he had corresponded with Secretary of War Henry Knox, regarding an Indian skirmish at the Falls of the Muskingum River where treaty negotiations were to be held. Click on link to learn more about the Treaty of Fort Harmar.

The Governor and Judges issued their first Territorial law on July 25, 1788,  "A Law for regulating and establishing a militia of the United States northwest of the river Ohio.... "  A few weeks later, Washington County, Ohio was created. In September, the “Court of Quarter Sessions” - what we refer to as common pleas court today - was convened with much fanfare. There was a procession from the Point to a room in the northwest blockhouse at the Campus Martius fortified enclosure led by Sheriff Colonel Ebenezer Sproat riding on horseback with saber drawn. Appointed judges Rufus Putnam and Benjamin Tupper were seated on the bench. Reverend Manasseh Cutler, visiting the settlement, offered a prayer. Colonel Sproat intoned these words: "Oh yes! A court is open for the administration of evenhanded justice , to the poor and the rich, to the guilty and innocent, without respect of persons; none to be punished without trial by their peers, and then in pursuance of the laws and evidence in the case."

The bold experiment in territorial government that would be the base for state formation and nation building in the United States was well underway in late 1788 - in Marietta, Ohio.

Further notes about Arthur St. Clair:

• He served in the French and Indian War, Revolutionary War, and U. S. Army after the war, eventually achieving the rank of Major General. But he experienced two setbacks. One was a controversial retreat from Fort Ticonderoga which led to his court martial; he was exonerated. The other was a humiliating defeat by Indians in western Ohio in November, 1791.

A cover page of report analyzing St. Clair's humiliating defeat by Indians

From Wikipedia. CLICK TO ENLARGE

• His oldest daughter Louisa drew superlatives from locals when he and the children lived in Marietta. She was described in The St. Clair Papers as full of life, expert equestrian - dashing around Campus Martius in full gallop, rapid skater, elegant in appearance, capable hunter, skilled with a rifle which she could load and fire as well as any backwoodsman, yet refined in manners and well educated.
• St. Clair changed the name of Losantiville, Ohio, to Cincinnati - in recognition of the Society of the Cincinnati, a group formed to preserve the ideals and fellowship of Continental Army officers after the Revolutionary War
• St. Clair acquired wealth but lost much of it as a result of military service in the Revolutionary War. He regained wealth later in life but suffered financial loss when a loan he co-signed defaulted. He died in poverty in 1818 at his home near Greensburg, PA.
• He was a Federalist whose preference for a strong national government and elitist leadership left him at odds with the grassroots conservatism prevalent in the new territory. He opposed Ohio statehood. Instead he espoused dividing the Ohio land into two sections with the Scioto River as a north-south dividing line - regions that he thought could generate a Federalist majority.

Sources: All of these were viewed on line unless noted.

Denny, Ebenezer, Military Journal of Ebenezer Denny, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, J. J. Lippincott and Company, 1859

Hildreth, Samuel, Pioneer History: Being an Account of the First Examinations of the Ohio Valley and the Early Settlement of the Northwest Territory, Cincinnati, H. W. Derby & Co., 1848

The St. Clair Papers Volumes I and II, William Henry Smith editor, Cincinnati, Robert Clarke and Co., 1882, page 107, viewed at archive.org

Wikipedia, "Arthur St. Clair."

Williams, H. Z. et al, History of Washington County with Illustrations and Biographical Sketches, Cleveland, H. Z. Williams and Bro., 1888

Milligan, Fred,  Ohio’s Founding Fathers, New York, iUniverse, Inc., 2003

Pages 81-94 (viewed in paperback edition)

July 4, 1788..."We were one great family."

July 4, 1788 in Marietta, Ohio, dawned warm, humid, and windy. Rain threatened. Joseph Buell was a soldier in the garrison at Fort Harmar. His journal entry for July 4, 1788 was matter-of-fact: "This day was celebrated with thirteen rounds from the six pounder, and repeated again at four o'clock. The troops received an extra allowance...." The "allowance" was probably extra liquor rations. On a previous July Fourth in 1786 Buell reported that soldiers were granted an extra gill of liquor and "had liberty to drink & get drunk."

Fort Harmar circa 1789

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Fort_Harmar.jpg

Illustration from The Pictorial Field-Book of the War of 1812, Benson J. Losing.

CLICK TO ENLARGE

Six Pound Cannon

http://deadliestwarrior.wikia.com/wiki/6-Pound_Cannon

CLICK TO ENLARGE

The celebration across the Muskingum River at Marietta featured cannon salutes, a feast, an oration, spirits, toasts, - and rain. There were numerous Revolutionary War veterans in the new community. Only twelve years had elapsed since the Declaration of Independence was signed on July 4, 1776. The noble cause, sacrifice, and victory were undoubtedly fresh in their minds. 

Colonel John May reports in his journal: "...labour ceases today, in memory of the Declaration of Independence...at one o'clock, General Harmar and Lady, Mr. and Mrs. McCurders, and all the officers not on duty came over (from Fort Harmar)...at half-past one an excellent oration was deliverd by Judge Varnum and the cannon fired a salute of fourteen guns."

The weather was fickle. Colonel May: "At 3 o'clock just as dinner was on the table, came on a heavy shower...However the chief of our provisions were rescued from the deluge but injured materially. When the rain ceased, the table was laid again; but before we had finished, it came on to rain a second time. But on the whole, though, we had a handsome dinner..."

Henry Howe's Historical Collections of Ohio offers a description of the food served:

A repast, consisting of all the delicacies which The woods and the streams and the gardens and the housewives skill afforded, was served at the bowery (a covered area along the east side of the Muskingum River). There was venison barbecued, buffalo steaks, bear meat, wild fowl, fish and a little pork as the choicest luxury of all. One fish, a great pike weighing one hundred pounds - the largest ever taken by white men, it is said, in the waters of the Muskingum (River) was speared by Judge Gilbert Devoll and his son Gilbert.

Those assembled offered toasts. Major Ebenezer Denny noted in his journal: "When dinner was over thirteen toasts were drunk, each accompanied with a round from the three pounder (cannon), attended in the intervals by two drums, two fifes, and a couple of excellent violins." No one, it seems, was left out of the toasts. They drank to:

1. United States
2. Congress
3. His Most King of Majesty The King of France
4. The United Netherlands
5. The Friendly Powers Throughout the World
6. The New Federal Constitution
7. George Washington and the Society of Cincinnati
8. His Excellency Governor St. Clair and the Western Territory
9. The Memory of Heroes
10. Patriots
11. Captain Pipes and a Successful Treaty
12. Amiable Partners of our Lives
13. All Mankind

The official activities ended with a "grand illumination" of Fort Harmar - presumably a fireworks display. Fireworks were commonly available in colonial America. The partying lasted past midnight.

Judge James Mitchell Varnum's oration delivered an uplifting message of inspiration, praise, and gratitude at the favorable prospects for the nation, the new territory, and Marietta. The opening two paragraphs set the tone:

This anniversary, my friends, is sacred to the independence of the United States. Every heart must exult, every citizen must feel himself exalted upon the happy occasion.

The memorable Fourth of July will ever be celebrated with gratitude to the Supreme Being, for that revolution which caused tyranny and oppression to feed upon their own disappointment, and which crowned the exertions of patriotism with noblest rewards of virtue. 

James M. Varnum

Image from wikipedia.org

Unfortunately, Varnum's health was already in decline; he died six months later.

Varnum's lofty sentiments really did reflect the fellowship present in the community. Words of a participant recalling the experience later in life captured the camaraderie of the event: "Never had such a dinner since. We were one great family, loving God and each other, proud of our new home and resolved on success. And we won it."

Sources 

(all of these documents, unless otherwise noted, were viewed on-line at various web sites)

Edes, Rev. Richard S., and Darlington, William M., Journal and Letters of Col. John May, of Boston, Relative to Two Journeys to the Ohio Company in 1788 and '89, Cincinnati, Robert Clarke & Co, 1873, pages 78-79

Heintze, James R., "The First Fireworks on the Fourth of July," Fourth of July Celebrations Database, viewed at http://gurukul.american.edu/heintze/fourth.htm

Howe, Henry, Historical Collections of Ohio, Volume 12, Cincinnati, State of Ohio, 1907, pages 801-802.

Hildreth, Samuel, Pioneer History: Being an Account of the First Examinations of the Ohio Valley and the Early Settlement of the Northwest Territory, Cincinnati, H. W. Derby & Co., 1848, Pages 162, 214-215, 505

Military Journal of Ebenezer Denny, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, J. J. Lippincott and Company, 1859, pages 88-89

Williams, H. Z. et al, History of Washington County with Illustrations and Biographical Sketches, Cleveland, H. Z. Williams and Bro., 1888, Pages 357-358.

Marietta's First Christmas

The first Christmas in Marietta featured a 2 for 1 deal. No, it was not a "buy one get one" retail promotion. It was two holidays that were celebrated on the same day: Thanksgiving and Christmas were to be celebrated on December 25, 1788. 

A proclamation dated December 17, 1788 was issued by "His Excellency Arthur St. Clair, Esquire, Governor and Commander in Chief," stating that "For as much as it is encumbent on all men to acknowledge with gratitude their infinite obligations to Almighty God for benefits received...do hereby ordain that Thursday the 25th of December be observed as a day of solemn Thanksgiving and Praise..., and I do probihit all servile labor on that day."

It is unclear why Thanksgiving was not observed at the usual time. The Governors Chart of Laws, published by Rufus Putnam on April 9,1788, included both Thanksgiving and Christmas, among other holidays: "Be it ordained that all members of the colony must celebrate 22d February, 7th April, 4th July,  annually. Also in a proper manner observe the 28th November, 25th December, and 1st day January, annually."

Christmas then was not the mega-event that it has become today. Moreover, the New England settlers in Marietta were probably not used to celebrating Christmas. Their puritan ancestors had actually banned Christmas celebrations in 1659. They believed that Christmas was not biblical, had pagan origins, and in practice was more drunken revelry than pious observance. Christmas had been reinstated but was still only loosely observed by the bah-humbug New Englanders in the late 1700's.

1788 had been an historic yet challenging year. Marietta was a new (and the first!) settlement in the newly established Northwest Territory of the United States, the first such territory outside the original 13 states. The town was being laid out, a few houses were built, a fortified community elegantly named Campus Martius (Latin, meaning "Field of Mars") was started, and Indian treaty negotiations were well underway at nearby Fort Harmar. The surrounding lands were being surveyed, and 30 families had recently moved into town. It was a "crazy busy" place.

Yet there were stresses. Food was short at times since the first harvest was limited. Indians seemed friendly, but the peace seemed tenuous to many. There was discord among leaders and citizens. The weather that winter was severe; the rivers froze. Ice and snow made travel - and survival - a challenge. But, life went on. 

It was an event filled December, 1788 in Marietta. The diary of James Backus - a young Ohio Company shareholder, businessman, and civic official - supplies much of the commentary. Quotes are from his journal unless otherwise noted. 

On December 13 nearly 200 Indians were reportedly present for treaty negotiations; the following day there was a parade and military inspection. On December 15, there was a ball. It was the talk of the town, "All of the conversation of the Settlers centered in the Ball." Backus himself "Went to the Ball....drank good wine & came home groggy." He reported the next day: "Tuesday, 16. Fine morning but felt no better for the Ball." Judge Parsons, in a letter to his friend, the Reverend Manasseh Cutler, mentioned the ball in glowing terms - with no mention of a hangover: "We had the first Ball in our Country at which were present fifteen ladies as well accomplished in the manners of polite circles as any I have seen in the old states."

The ball was a pleasant distraction from the rigors of frontier living. However, Governor St. Clair viewed the revelry - and the frequent drunkenness of the Indians - with concern. The Indian negotiations were too sensitive and the threat to public safety too great to risk an alcohol fueled incident - from Indians or settlers. 

St. Clair issued a warrant on December 16 for the confiscation of all "spirituous liquors" until treaty negotiations were finalized. The same James Backus, as a recently commissioned deputy sheriff, was responsible for seizing the liquor. He does not mention this in his diary. He kept detailed records and issued receipts for the later return of the liquor. 

Community activity was henceforth more sedate and, well, sober. Dr Solomon Drown arrived in Marietta on December 19 and reported "more decorum (was) observed than in the British Parliament when I was there."

On Christmas/Thanksgiving morning, locals were jolted alert by a three gun salute from Fort Harmar answered by a three shot cannon blast from Campus Martius. Later there was a church service. Judge Parsons gave a sermon from Psalm 103, verse 2. 

Dr. Drown gave an account of the day to his family in Providence, "It being Christmas, public worship was introduced by reading...in the Church Prayer Book. Gen'l Parsons read a sermon adapted to the occasion. Good singing. I dined at General Goodale's and as this is such a new country, perhaps you will like to know our bill of fare. A boiled dish, Turkey, beef and bacon, cabbage, turnips and potatoes, butter, etc., A roast turkey 17 pounds. A turkey pie, custards, wheat bread, etc." There was no mention about those disruptive spirituous liquors.

Christmas Day at Fort Harmar may have been similar to that reported by soldier Joseph Buell's journal in 1787: "This being Christmas Day, the sergeants celebrated it by a dinner to which was added a plentiful supply of wine." Backus' journal notes that on December 26 there was "another ball." New Years Eve and New Years Day were also occasions for merriment and "musick." 

The new year of 1789 began with events of note. The Indian peace treaty was signed January 9. There was a gathering of Indian chiefs, a dinner, and parade. On that same day, General James Mitchell Varnum passed away quietly of tuberculosis. An elaborate funeral including citizens, leaders, military honors, and masonic rites followed. Later in January, a son was born to the family of Nathaniel Cushing; he was named James Varnum Cushing. The cycle of life moved on in the new settlement and surrounding territory.

Sources:

Phillips, Josephine E.,  "The Tide of Time, the Old Northwest Territory's First Christmas," The Tallow Light, Vol.1, No. 3, January, 1967.

Journal of James Backus, various entries, as reported in the Josephine Phillips article above.

Backus, William W., Geneological Memoir of the Backus Family, The Press of the Bulletin Co., Norwich CT, 1889, pages 37-42, accesssed at https://archive.org/stream/genealogicalmemo00back#page/38/mode/2up

The Week Staff, The Week, December 20, 2011, accessed at http://theweek.com/articles/479313/when-americans-banned-christmas

Howe, Henry, Historical Collections of Ohio, an Encyclopedia of the State, Volume II, C. J. Krehbiel, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1907, page 803, viewed at https://books.google.com/

Note: Special thanks to Campus Martius Museum Education Specialist Glenna Hoff for sending your author The Tallow Light article after a casual conversation and to Charlotte Keim for providing The Week article about Christmas.

Lewis Wetzel Frontier Hero...the Legend and the Dark Side

The campfire faded as the evening wore on, casting flickering shadows on the trees around the Indians' camp. Two braves guarded the young boys captured from their home two days earlier. Lewis, the oldest at just 13 years of age, comforted his frightened younger brother Jacob while pretending to be asleep himself.  He was barely at teenager, yet Lewis was frontier savvy, alert, and incredibly patient. Though wounded by a gunshot during their capture, he refused to let the Indians see his pain.  He was livid at the Indians' harsh treatment and taunts. They had to escape that night, he reckoned, to avoid death or torture.

For hours he waited, quietly muttering "Courage, courage." At last their guards nodded off into deep slumber, and they slipped out of the camp. Lewis brazenly sneaked back to the camp twice to retrieve moccasins for them to wear and to take back his father's musket and powder horn. They made it back to their family near Wheeling WV after several harrowing days. 

The year was 1777. The oldest boy was Lewis Wetzel, who became a remarkable frontier fighter and scout.  His frontier training began at an early age. Indians were a constant threat to the Lewis settlement on Wheeling Creek. Lewis's father John Wetzel taught frontier skills to all of his seven children - sons and daughters. Lewis became proficient in shooting, use of knife and tomahawk, agility, endurance, and tracking.

The Wetzel legend - Indian killer, larger-than-life frontier fighter

He began a life-long campaign to hunt down and kill Indians. Pioneer families considered him a hero as their defenders against the Indian threat. Others regarded him as a sociopathic killer whose tactics amounted to atrocities against the Indians he hunted. 

Dozens of books and treatises have been written about Lewis Wetzel. He appears as a character (or fictional characters inspired by him) in several books by writers such as Zane Grey, James Fennimore Cooper, and Allan Eckert. Anne Jennings Paris, a descendent of Wetzel, was inspired to write a series of poems about him in Killing George Washington: the American West in Five Voices.

The Zane Grey Frontier Trilogy: Betty Zane, The Last Trail, The Spirit Of The Border[Zane Grey] on Amazon.com. ... They are a virtual narrative history of the Zane family,Lewis Wetzel, and frontier life and indian warfare in the Ohio river valley  ..

Several places are named for Wetzel, including nearby Wetzel County WV. Yet despite the many accounts of his life going back to the mid-1800s, some truths about him remain elusive. Differing story versions, legend, and fictional depictions mingle with the actual facts to create the fascinating Lewis Wetzel historical figure. 

Lewis Wetzel exploits

Stories of his exploits abound. The year after his escape from Indians he helped Forest Frazier rescue his wife Rose who was abducted by Indians. Lewis had skillfully tracked the Indians, found their camp, and waited all night to attack them as they awoke. They returned with Rose and four Indian scalps. The incident was the basis for the novel Forest Rose by Emerson Bennett published in the mid-1800s. 

He was renowned for the ability to reload, prime, and shoot his musket while running at full speed. At age 16, he joined a group of settlers who were chasing Indians who had stolen their horses. The Indians initially fled, allowing the settlers to recover the horses. But the Indians soon reappeared. The settlers promptly abandoned the chase, leaving Lewis on his own. He faked being shot and when the Indians came to get his scalp, he shot one of them. He killed another while being chased and reloading on the run. Lewis returned to Wheeling Creek with two scalps, bragging to all who would listen. 

In 1782, he and Thomas Mills were attacked by Indians while trying to retrieve Mills' horse. Mills was mortally wounded by a volley of Indians' gunfire. Lewis instantly fled at full speed, soon outrunning all but four Indians. One by one, he shot three of them after reloading on the run. One of those Indians had been close enough to grab the end of Lewis's rifle as he tried to fire and pulled him down to the ground. The Indian taunted Lewis: "White man die....hurry up, chiefs, see Wetzel die." This enraged Lewis who managed to thrust the rifle to the Indian's neck and kill him. The fourth gave up the chase, exclaiming "no catch dat man, gun always loaded." 

Illustration of the three Indian chase described above. Copied by author from History of the Early Settlement and Indian Wars of West Virginia (DeHass), 1851., viewed at Google Books.

Wetzel's personality: eccentric, friendly to some, a dark side.  

He was a loner, living for long periods alone in the woods, often staying in hideouts such as rock outcroppings. One such location is in present day Lancaster, Ohio. Another was near Moss Run in Washington County, Ohio. When not in the woods he played the fiddle in taverns and excelled in shooting competitions. Wetzel was described as being friendly to dogs and children, but often aloof with adults. He never had a home, married, owned land, or held an ordinary job. 

His appearance was distinctive. He is described as about six feet tall, raw boned, with a swarthy appearance, jet black eyes, pock-marked face from small pox, braided hair which reached to his calves when combed out, and pierced ears from which he wore silk tassels. Some said he had the skin color of Indians. 

Imagined portrait of Wetzel from glenbarnesart.com, based on historical descriptions and appearance of descendents.

His dark side was the obsession with hunting and killing Indians, "often for sport", "stalking them like prey", some said. He often tracked small hunting parties for long periods, then attacked - killing them, taking scalps, and fighting his way out if there were survivors. Lewis claimed that he had scalps of 27 Indians that he killed between 1777 and 1788. Other sources put the figure at 100 or more.

Indians called him "Deathwind." He seemed fearless. He and scout Samuel Brady even walked into Indian camps along the Sandusky River disguised as Indians to ascertain their strength. Twice he killed Indian chiefs who were part of peace negotiations. Some historians have described him as "remorseless," "a terrorist," and a "cultural embarrassment."

Marietta area connections

Lewis Wetzel had connections to the Marietta area. He often hunted wild game - and Indians - in the area. According to local lore, he frequented a rock outcropping near Moss Run in Washington County identified as "Wetzel's Cave." 

Lewis was friends with Hamilton Kerr, later a scout and hunter for the Marietta settlement, when he lived in the Wheeling area. They often hunted and trapped together, though Kerr did not share Wetzel’s fanaticism in killing Indians. A Hamilton Kerr decendent was told that Hamilton later avoided the Wetzels because though brave, “they were rash men who subjected themselves and their companions to danger.”

One particular hunting trip brought Kerr, Lewis, and other members of Lewis's family downriver near the Muskingum River in 1784. They camped on the island that would later be Hamilton Kerr's home. They set traps for beaver, posted watches for Indians, and went to sleep. The next morning, the traps were gone. Indians! Sensing danger, they began paddling up the Ohio River to get away. Indians appeared and opened fire near Duck Creek. Lewis's brother George Wetzel and Kerr's dog died. Hamilton Kerr was wounded. One account states that Lewis's father John was also in the party and died. 

Lewis was not wounded (this was typical; his luck or knack for avoiding capture or injury was legendary) and paddled furiously out of danger and stopped near Long Reach. They buried the dead, apparently using only their paddles. Upon returning to Wheeling, Hamilton was nursed back to health by Rebecca Williams, known for her frontier medical skills. Isaac and Rebecca Williams would move to the Virginia shore opposite the Muskingum River, site of the current Williamstown, in 1787.

Lewis Wetzel was in the Marietta area in 1788. Reportedly he served as a hunter to supply wild game for the new settlement and was a part time scout at Fort Harmar. In 1789 (some accounts date the event in 1791) he shot a Seneca Chief named Tegunteh, nicknamed George Washington because of his exemplary character, as he approached Fort Harmar for treaty negotiations being overseen by General Josiah Harmar. 

Fort Harmar near Marietta by Joseph Gilman. Note Treaty house for Indian negotiations at bottom left of image.

Harmar was outraged at this wanton killing and issued a warrant to arrest Wetzel for the murder of Tegunteh. Harmar later wrote to Secretary of War Henry Knox:

This George Washington (Tegunteh) is a trusty confidential Indian…. He is well known to Governor St. Clair, and I believe there is not a better Indian to be found. The villain who wounded him I am informed is one Lewis Whitzell. I am in hopes to be able to apprehend him and deliver him to Judge Parsons to be delt with; but would much rather have it in my power to order such vagabonds hanged up immediately without trial.

The first effort to capture Wetzel at Mingo Bottom was thwarted by armed locals who considered Wetzel a hero as their protector against Indians. The outnumbered soldiers wisely backed off. He was later captured at the home of Hamilton Kerr on Kerr's Island and imprisoned at Fort Harmar.

He brazenly escaped from Fort Harmar by cajoling his guards to give him more freedom to move around inside the Fort. While darting around "for exercise", he leaped over the wall of the Fort before his surprised guards could react. His pursuers assumed he would run as far away as possible. Lewis stymied them by hiding in plain sight - under a log, right along a trail, not far from the Fort. Soldiers and Indians, each hunting for him, moved back and forth over his log, even standing at one point atop the log. After three days, he emerged from the log and crossed the Ohio River, still shackled, to a friend's place in Virginia. A friendly blacksmith removed the shackles, and he was a free spirit once more - for a while.

He was captured a second time after a soldier spotted him in a tavern at present day Maysville, KY. He was taken to Fort Washington near Cincinnati. Once again, armed supporters came to his rescue. More than 200 settlers threatened to free Lewis by force if he was not released. Territorial Judge John Symmes finally released Lewis on a writ of habeas corpus - and never recalled him for trial.

Later years

He left the Ohio Valley area in the 1790s. The Treaty of Greenville in 1795 ended the menace of Indian attacks in the Ohio area. Wetzel's star as an Indian fighting hero faded. Less is known of his later activities. His name is recorded as a resident in Spanish New Orleans. It is reported that he did jail time for counterfeiting, romanced a Spanish official's wife, and joined the Louis and Clark expedition. The latter two activities are not documented. Historian Ray Swick reported a surprising recent discovery about Wetzel in an article authored with Brian D. Hardison. Hardison obtained a document at auction in 2007 which lists Lewis Wetzel as a participant in the ill-fated Aaron Burr expedition. There are no details on his role.

He died in 1808 and was buried near a cousin's home in Mississippi. A researcher found and relocated his remains in 1942. He is now buried next to his older brother Martin Wetzel in McCreary Cemetery near Moundsville, WV, just two miles from the Wetzel family homestead. Though long departed, his reputation lives on.    

"NewVrindaban-Lewis-Wetzel" by Bryan K. French - From the Author. Licensed under CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons - https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NewVrindaban-Lewis-Wetzel.png#/media/File:NewVrindaban-Lewis-Wetzel.png

Sources:

Wills De Hass, History of the Early Settlement and Indian Wars of Western Virginia (Wheeling: H. Hoblitzell, 1851), 357Ÿ58.

"Hope" (a user), "Lewis Wetzel," 2007, All Empires On Line History Community, viewed at allempires.com

Meyers, R.C.V., Life and Adventures of Lewis Wetzel, John E. Potter and Company, 1882, viewed at archive.org)

Pierce, James P., "Lewis Wetzel, Dark Hero of the Ohio," The Early America Review, earlyamerica.com, 2007

Carroll, George, "Lewis Wetzel: Warfare Tactics on the Frontier," West Virginia History Vol 50, pp 79-90

"Lewis Wetzel," Wikipedia, the Online Community

Haught, James A., "'Deathwind' is Part of Our History," Charleston Gazette, October 6, 2003, viewed at http://www.wvinter.net/~haught/deathwind.htm

Zimmer, Louise, True Stories of Pioneer Times (Northwest Territory 1787-1812), Broughton Foods Company, 1987, pp 7-13, 36-43

Hardison, Brian D., and Ray Swick, "A Recruit for Aaron Burr, Lewis Wetzel and the Burr 'Conspiracy'," West Virginia History, Fall 2009, pp 75-86.

Liquor on the Frontier

Survival was a basic goal of early settlers in Marietta and the Ohio country. The area was a wilderness. Priorities were food, shelter, protection from the elements, eking out a living wage, and....alcohol. Yes, booze in colonial times was considered a basic necessity.

Alcohol was an integral part of life in early America, a fact omitted from our conventional history lessons. You probably did not know that George Washington enjoyed his spirits; his war time expense account for liquor from September 1775 to June 1776 exceeded $6,000, and he was a major distiller of whiskey at Mount Vernon. Or that John Adams started the day with a hard cider eye opener. And that Thomas Jefferson was a wine connoisseur who with guests consumed 1,203 bottles of wine at his Monticello estate in just over two years. 

Attitudes towards alcohol were liberal then by today's standards. There were no prohibitions on the purchase, consumption, or production of alcoholic beverages. Alcohol was part of the diet and tradition from England. Spirits were believed to have health benefits, be safer than often unsanitary water, and be a welcome morale booster in often difficult life situations. 

In the 1790s it was estimated that the average American over fifteen years old each year drank 34 gallons of beer and cider, 5 gallons of distilled spirits, and 1 gallon of wine. All that is reported to be the equivalent of 7 ounces of distilled liquor a day. Even children drank “small beer” with a low alcohol content. But people were not partying and tipsy all the time. Author Corin Hirsch points out that "life expectancy was lower then and life was pretty hard so you can’t judge anyone.”

Scholars of "spiritual" history point out fascinating aspects of drinking and attitudes about it, sometimes in amusing terms:

• "...most of the founding fathers were buzzed, if not flat-out hammered, when they formulated the ideals....for their new country."  Ethan De Siefe, 2014.
• "Beer is living proof that God loves us and wants to see us happy." Ben Franklin.
•  “Americans drank beer, and cider with breakfast; rum and wine with dinner; claret, ratafias, creams, punches and other concoctions in the evening.” Robinson, 2001, as quoted in Tom Jewett's 2007 article.
•  “Alcohol lubricated such social events as christenings, weddings, funerals, trails, and election-day gatherings, where aspiring candidates tempted voters with free drinks. Craftsmen drank at work, as did hired hands in the fields, shoppers in stores, sailors at sea and soldiers in camp. Then, as now, college students enjoyed malted beverages, which explains why Harvard had its own brewery. In 1639, when the school did not supply sufficient beer, President Nathaniel Eaton lost his job.” Henry Howe, Historical Collections of Ohio Vol II, 1908.

Alcohol was also a staple of life in early Marietta and the Northwest Territory:

• Liquor rations for the soldiers at Fort Harmar included a gill (4 ounces) of rum daily. Surveyors in the initial group hired by the Ohio Company had a similar ration. Imagine having a job that provides 4 ounces of booze each day.  Nice benefit, eh?
• Drunkenness was the leading offense of the day - both at Fort Harmar and in the general public. Punishment at Fort Harmar was 100 or more lashes. In Marietta, there was a fine of "5 dimes for the first offense and $1.00 for each offense thereafter."
• Peach brandy was reportedly made from peaches grown at Fort Harmar and elsewhere. Campus Martius Historian Bill Reynolds observed with a grin that “peaches were not just grown for eating, you know.”
• Portable liquor cabinets from that period are on display at Campus Martius Museum, one belonging to Rufus Putnam, another to Israel Putnam, Rufus' half brother. It held several bottles in a small wooden box that could be easily transported. These were fairly common during that time.
• Joseph Buell, a soldier at Fort Harmar, kept a journal which records incidents of liquor consumption.
• July 4, 1786, "The great day of independence was commemorated by the discharge of 13 guns, after which the soldiers were served with extra rations of liquor and allowed to get as drunk as they pleased." 
• May 1, 1786: May Day is celebrated with a maypole, dancing, "curious antics, drinking, carousing, and firing guns." 
• December 3, 1786: provisions were delivered including 20 kegs of flour and 10 kegs of whiskey.
• September 9, 1787. A group of Indians visited the fort and entertained the locals - and themselves. On this day they..."danced in the hot sun, drinking whisky at the same time, until they were as drunk as they could be and stand on their feet."
• Colonel John May also kept a journal of his time in Marietta. 
• Tuesday, May 6, 1788: Near Simmrill's Ferry, Pennsylvania, on his way to Marietta, he procured 4 barrels of finest flour and a barrel (30 gallons) of "whisky." The contents were placed on a ferry, which nearly sank under the weight.
• May 27, 1788. He reported dining with General Josiah Harmar. The elegant dinner included beef, boiled fish, bear-steaks, roast venison, etc.,.and "wine and grog." Even on the frontier, high ranking military officers ate and drank well.
• June 8, 1788. Another fabulous dinner with Generals Harmar, Putnam, and Varnum plus others. Libations included spirits, excellent wine, brandy, and beer.
• The first July 4th celebration at Marietta was quite an event, including a sumptuous feast, an oration by Judge Varnum, and a 14 gun salute. There was celebratory drinking, too, with "a bowl of punch, also wine, grog, etc." May reported that the celebration continued until past midnight after which they "went home and to bed, and slept sound until morning." During the event there were toasts - many toasts. No one, it seems, was left out. They drank to:

1. United States
2. Congress
3. His Most King of Majesty The King of France
4. The United Netherlands
5. The Friendly Powers Throughout the World
6. The New Federal Constitution
7. George Washington and the Society of Cincinnati
8. His Excellency Governor St. Clair and the Western Territory
9. The Memory of Heroes
10. Patriots
11. Captain Pipes and a Successful Treaty
12. Amiable Partners of our Lives
13. All Mankind

Our early ancestors drank a wide variety of beverages - some conventional, others quite unusual - in content and name. Here are some of the more conventional ones:

• Beer and cider - these were easy to make using apples for cider and grains for beer.
• Rum - a staple of the colonies.  In 1770, there were 140 Rum stills in the northeastern colonies producing 4.8 Million gallons of rum.
• Grog – generally, any drink mixed with water. Originally it was water mixed with rum and lime or lemon juice. The concoction was introduced into the Royal Navy in 1740 by Vice Admiral Edward Vernon, who was nicknamed “Old Grog” after the Grogham cloth coat he wore.
• Shrub – a fruit liqueur made with rum or brandy mixed with sugar and juice or rinds of citrus fruits.
• Wine was always popular but more expensive and mostly imported from Europe.
• Whiskey became more popular in the late 1700's as molasses used for rum became more expensive.

Then there are the mixed drinks, many quite unknown to us today. The quirky names are as interesting as the recipes:

• Stone Fence. A bracing blend of rum and cider. Ethan Allen and the legendary Green Mountain Boys are reported to have imbibed this for liquid courage before raiding Fort Ticonderoga. 
• Flip. A blend of beer, rum, molasses, and eggs or cream mixed in a pitcher and whipped into a froth by plunging a hot fire poker (called a flip dog) into the mixture.
• Syllabub. A mix of wine, cream, and lemon topped with whipped egg whites. Eggs and cream were supposed to make the drink more nutritious. Really, that was the belief.
• Rattleskull is named after the English slang for a chatty person, and probably for its effect on the drinker. It is a potent blend of 3-4 oz of a rum/brandy mix poured into a pint of stout porter (an ale) tarted up with lime and topped with nutmeg. One colonial drink expert says this "bad-ass drink is a dangerously smooth and stultifying concoction."
• Calibogus. A mix of dark rum and spruce beer (beer made with the needles or new shoots of a spruce tree). Since spruce shoots have vitamin C, the drink was popular among sailors to ward off scurvy from lack of vitamin C in their diet at sea.
• Sangaree was a mix of madeira or port wine with lemon juice, sugar, and nutmeg. It was the precursor to the more modern Sangria.

Alcoholic beverages were part of the culture, though some spoke out against the social and health damage from excessive drinking. Few listened. Benjamin Rush was a Philadelphia physician who studied mental illness. He wrote a fascinating paper titled Inquiry into the Effects of Ardent Spirits Upon the Human Body and Mind, published in 1785. He presciently classified alcoholism as a disease and addiction. His work would influence the temperance movement which eventually reduced alcohol consumption. But that would be decades in the future. Meanwhile drinking remained America's favorite pastime.

Sources:

Jewett, Tom, “Spirits of Our Forefathers,” 2002, http://www.earlyamerica.com/review/2002_summer_fall/forefathers.htm

Burns, Eric, The Spirits of America: A Social History of Alcohol, 2004, Temple University Press.

Howe, Henry, Historical Collections of Ohio Vol II, 1908

Hirsch, Corin, “5 Colonial-Era Drinks You Should Know, 2014, http://drinks.seriouseats.com/2014/04/colonial-era-drinks-cocktails-rum-flip-stonefence-syllabub-rattleskull.html

Crews, Ed, “Drinking in Colonial America,” 2007, Colonial Williamsburg Publications, http://www.history.org/foundation/journal/holiday07/drink.cfm

Hildreth, Samuel, Pioneer History, Being an Account of the First Examinations of the Ohio Valley and the Early Settlement of the Northwest Territory, 1848, W. Derby & Company (Cincinnati)

De Seife, Ethan, Forgotten Drinks of Colonial New England by Corin Hirsch, 2014, http://www.sevendaysvt.com/vermont/forgotten-drinks-of-colonial-new-england-by-corin-hirsch/Content?oid=2344349